Gauging the impact of sport and development is challenging, in part because it is difficult to pin down exactly what to call it, let alone what it means and how many people it is helping. A cursory review of the literature reveals a host of terms that are employed within the field: sport and society, sport and social change, sport and philanthropy, sport through development, and development through sport, just to name a few.
In ancient Greece, leaders signed a truce to halt fighting during the Olympics, and more recently, the belief that sport builds character has gained currency.
Nonetheless, no precise definition of a sport and development organization exists—an ambiguity that some find problematic. One concern is that initiatives focused on elite athletes pretend to have a broader social focus. Another is that groups with a genuine interest in development lack the training and resources to realize this mission.
Both kinds of organizations, practitioners fear, can tarnish the field in the eyes of prospective funders. To sharpen boundaries, some call for creating an accreditation system for coaches and practitioners. Zak Kaufman, a doctoral student at the London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, however, warns that the data only shows a correlation between sport and development.
Others are less enthusiastic about randomized controlled trials. Some warn that they could prove onerous for small NGOs and express concerns about assigning a child in need to a control group. Most notably, it is extremely challenging—and sometimes impossible—to measure all potentially confounding variables. Funders, however, still want proof that sport and development works, and more rigorous research—especially randomized controlled trials—will help to address their concerns.
You could do. Upon arriving, he found himself surrounded by kids who peppered him with questions: Will Marcus Camby be traded? Who will lead the NBA in blocks this year? I encourage countries to look at sports through a different angle. Sports are an effective instrument that can help improve the quality and development of our children, families and countries in general.
Each country will need to tailor its programs in order to focus on its particular problems and obtain the results it seeks. The results will be observed in the long term.
Camila de Vengoechea. The views expressed in this article are those of the author alone and not the World Economic Forum. I accept. Based on the GCP data, we also observe an improvement in children's overall school performance of Both estimates do not differ much from the respective estimates based on the KiGGS data Moreover, the improvement in behaviour stems again mainly from the reduction in peer problems.
While the reduction in emotional problems still amounts to the same magnitude, it is no longer statistically significant. GCP B presents the results when we control additionally for the set of lagged outcome variables and replace all control variables by the respective control variables from wave 1. In GPC C we repeat the strategy employed under B but restrict the sample to children who do not participate in a sports club in wave 1.
The presented effect is the average treatment effect ATE. When additionally including children's lagged outcome variables and replacing the control variables by control variables exclusively measured prior to treatment, the effects decrease slightly and accordingly loose statistical significance. The main picture, however, remains see GCP B : children when participating in a sports club experience improvements in their health, school performance and behaviour. Thus, prior health and human capital endowment is unlikely to explain selection into sports clubs.
The last column GCP C displays the estimates corrected for time constant unobserved heterogeneity by conditioning on sports-participation in the first wave of the panel. Moreover, by including the full set of lagged outcome variables we only compare children with the same initial skill endowment and health status. Our results are mostly robust to this correction: children's school performance improves by 0. Only the estimate of subjective health shrinks towards zero. Unfortunately, we lack any objective health measures in the GCP to substantiate this finding.
An important question from a policy perspective is whether the "right children" participate in sports, meaning whether those children who participate are those who benefit. We address this question in two different ways.
On the one hand, we ask whether there is selection-on-gains—in other words, whether children who are participating in sports clubs are actually benefitting more from participation than children who are not participating.
On the other hand, we analyze effect heterogeneity across children that differ in their observable characteristics. The ATET refers to the effect of sports participation on children who do engage in sports, while the ATENT refers to the effects on children, who do not participate, if they actually would participate see Table 7.
However, the overall picture remains mixed and the effects are not statistically different from each other at any conventional level. Thus, it does not seem that any of the two types of children would benefit significantly more from sports participation than the other type of children.
Note: p-values are computed by bootstrapping p-values of the t-statistic with replications. All variables are standardized to mean zero and variance one. Table 8 presents effect heterogeneities with respect to observable characteristics. It contains the pair wise comparison of boys and girls, younger and older children, and finally children who live in cities and children who live in the countryside. Notice that due to a limited sample size when stratifying, we again abstain from controlling for state fixed effects.
Thus, for the purpose of comparison with the estimates using the complete sample, please refer to the ones shown in Table 5 , Column A. Note: The distinction between city and countryside is based on INKAR and is a combination of population size, density, political and administrative relevance, etc. P-values are computed by bootstrapping p-values of the t-statistic with replications.
The strongest differences exist when comparing children living in a city with children living on the countryside. This improvement is mainly driven by a reduction in peer problems, emotional problems, and hyperactivity. Interestingly, we also observe improved peer relations among "countryside" children when engaging in a sports club, yet no gain in any other dimension of behaviour.
The underlying reason for the heterogeneous effects with respect to the degree of urbanization may be the respective counterfactual. While children living in a city might find it rather difficult to be physically active—the reason being simply a lack of outdoor space—children living on the countryside might be more physically active in general and thus, have a relatively lower gain from participating in a sports club than children living in a city. In fact, when using the country sample only, we do not observe a significant crowding out of sports outside a club due to sports in a club.
However, the available measure may not necessarily capture general physical activity, such as running around or playing outside, and thus does not provide us with supportive empirical evidence for the statement made above. Although girls generally score much better than boys on most of human capital indicators, sports club participation seems to equally affect boys and girls, with the exception of a slightly stronger effect on girls' anti-social behaviour.
While we detect some heterogeneity in the effects on subjective health, these differences are not visible in the objective health measures. Yet, notice that previous literature also found only little evidence on heterogeneity in the treatment effects of sports participation [ 21 ]. When analysing the impact of sports club participation on the health and behaviour of younger and older children, we observe a slightly stronger effect for older children, the difference is, however, not significant.
In what follows, we first discuss the variety of activities encompassed by sports club participation. This discussion is based on the existing literature in developmental psychology. We then shed some light on the activities crowded out by sports club participation. For this purpose, we do not only rely on the existing literature but also investigate the impact of sports club participation on alternative activities undertaken by children empirically.
The obvious activity involved in sports club participation is physical exercise. Yet, participation in a sports club makes children go through a vast array of further activities and experiences that boost their development. In addition, the interaction with a team and in particular the interaction with peers who would normally be outside the existing social network, fosters the development of personal skills such as empathy, loyalty, intimacy, self-control, team-spirit, but also dealing with criticism and conflict.
The additional advantage of exercising sports in a club in contrast to pure physical exercise is the fact that it is a guided and highly structured extra-curricular activity [ 57 , 58 ]. The available data allow us to investigate this channel empirically. Table 9 shows the impact of sports club participation on the time spent in physical activities undertaken outside a sports club and passive activities such as watching TV and using a computer.
Note: P-values are computed by bootstrapping p-values of the t-statistic with replications. Sports exercised outside a club is measured as a binary variable, where 1 indicates a child is doing at least once per week sports outside a club. All other activities are measured as hours per day. Interestingly, the reported level of sports activities done outside a club is the same among children who participate in a sports club and among children who do not.
Yet, perhaps more interestingly, our results provide evidence that sports club participation leads to a small, but significant crowding out of TV consumption by 4. Putting this finding into relation with the average attendance of children at a sports club, we can infer that exercising approximately 1—2 times per week in a sports club leads to a reduction of 28 minutes TV watching per week. While different disciplines acknowledge the importance of acquiring good health, education and behaviour during childhood for outcomes later in life, the role of extra-curricular activities for their formation is not yet fully understood.
For this purpose, we investigate the effects of sports activities on different measures of health, school performance and behaviour among preschool and primary school age children. Our results indicate positive effects of participation in sports on children's health, education and behaviour: overall, children's school grades and behaviour, in particular the relation to their peers, improve substantially; Results are robust when using different data and empirical strategies as well as when including simulated unobserved confounding variables.
Our results highlight the importance of physical activities for children's development. Encouraging children to participate in sports and providing the necessary infrastructure should therefore be, and in many countries already is, an important policy objective. Further research should qualify this statement by a cost-benefit analysis. Our results provide also evidence that the positive effects of doing sports in a club are partially explained by an increase in physical activity as sports club participation does not crowd out other sports activities.
The effects are strongest in cities, where children have fewer opportunities to be physically active outside of sports clubs—as well as by a reduction in passive activities such as watching TV. Nevertheless, "doing sports in a club" has still many more dimensions, which, given the data at hand, we are not able to explore. Participating in a sports club challenges children to take initiative and to plan, carry through, and achieve a valued goal. Sports club participation exposes children to cooperation with other children in a team, which may make them better team players also in other situations in life and, thus, may explain the reduction in peer problems.
Doing sports in a club comes often along with participation in competitions. Future research should therefore try to dig deeper into the mechanisms through which sports activities may influence skill formation and disentangle the various channels through which the effect may work. While providing evidence on the short-run effects of sports club participation, our study falls short in assessing its long term or sustained effects into young adulthood and beyond.
In addition, our study does not answer whether sustained effects depend on continued participation in sports clubs or an equivalent exercise regimen in later years. Such questions are important to assess the overall benefit of sports clubs and should be addressed in future research. We thank participants, in particular Bernd Fitzenberger, Franco Peracchi, and Toman Barsbai for their helpful comments and suggestions.
The usual disclaimer applies. Funding provided by St. The funders had no role in study design, data collection and analysis, decision to publish, or preparation of the manuscript. National Center for Biotechnology Information , U. PLoS One. Published online May 4. Jacobus van Wouwe, Editor. Author information Article notes Copyright and License information Disclaimer. Competing Interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. Received Jun 11; Accepted Mar 3. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License , which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original author and source are credited.
This article has been cited by other articles in PMC. S3 Appendix: Further details on the estimator used—Formal sensitivity analysis of matching estimation. S1 Table: Descriptive Statistics of the control variables and coefficients of the propensity score estimation based on the KiGGS sample probit.
S5 Table: Additional Estimates—Descriptive statistics for children's cognitive and non-cognitive skills non-standardized variables. S9 Table: Additional Estimates—Bootstrapped difference in average treatment effects between specifications with and without state fixed effects. Abstract The role of curricular activities for the formation of education, health and behavioural outcomes has been widely studied.
Table 1 Participation in sports clubs. Open in a separate window. Table 2 Frequency of participation in a sports club. Table 3 Descriptive statistics for children's health and human capital. Mean Mean Difference p-val. Table 5 Sensitivity check—Difference of effects under different confounding scenarios relative to the baseline scenario ATE. Participants p-val. Table 8 Heterogeneity with respect to other characteristics. Average Outcome Avg. Not Par. Not Part. Participants Nonparticipants Avg.
Effect p-val. DOCX Click here for additional data file. S3 Appendix Further details on the estimator used—Formal sensitivity analysis of matching estimation. S1 Table Descriptive Statistics of the control variables and coefficients of the propensity score estimation based on the KiGGS sample probit. S5 Table Additional Estimates—Descriptive statistics for children's cognitive and non-cognitive skills non-standardized variables. S9 Table Additional Estimates—Bootstrapped difference in average treatment effects between specifications with and without state fixed effects.
Funding Statement Funding provided by St. References 1. Murnane R. The Review of Economics and Statistics , 77 2 : — Cawley J. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Heckman J. By injecting pedagogical approach to teaching, students can have a better chance and can engage to physical education and sports. For your primary post, select any one theory, conceptualization, or research study and briefly describe it.
How might you make a connection between what you selected and how it could be used for curricular improvement? Beth can you make this understandable and remember the question I have to answer is above in read.
Nike uses a lot big star athletes in their advertising. These athletes are world known people that the youth looks up to as role models. Nike creates a strong ethos by adding big name stars that are respected and look up to.
The Audiences may look at Kobe Bryant's ad and see that arguably one of the best shooting guards in the NBA wears nike shoes. In the sporting world, race is a widely discussed topic that frequently comes up. Sport managers are responsible for the moral decisions that govern an organizations behaviour. An individual must understand that certain decisions may be right or wrong when it comes to situations in life. Since the 21st century, sport has developed an increase in talent, many individuals choose to make unethical decisions to benefit themselves.
It is also important to allow every individual an equal opportunity to be a part of a sports team unless reasons exist otherwise. When choosing a team, evaluation should be based on skill, personality, and prior behaviour. Risk management comes early years Aman, and nowadays risk management practices is increases and take serious in risk management practices.
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